Keywords

18. Eduki ‘possesive have’ and jakin ‘know’ synthetic forms including dative clitics: dekotzu, dakitzu

affected datives

agreement/clitics

8. Dative agreement drop: gizonari liburua eman du (v dio)

9. Differential object marking: ikusi nizun (v ikusi zintudan)

10. Dative (first) objects in transitive verbs: itxarongo dizut, diot (v itxarongo zaitut, dut)

11. Dative Displacement: eman nauzu (v eman didazu)

12. Dative marking of the unaccusative causee: etorrarazi dizute (v etorrarazi zaituzte)

16. Neutralization of ergative displacement: emon dostezun (v zeunstan, zenidan)

18. Eduki ‘possesive have’ and jakin ‘know’ synthetic forms including dative clitics: dekotzu, dakitzu

allative

41. Complex postpositions in animate noun phrases: -gan- (v -rengan-)

47. Approximation allative: -ra aldera, -raka (v -rantz)

48. Nominalized verb + inessive to express purpose: egiten joan (v egitera joan)

51. Allative marking: -rat/-lat/-alat (v -ra)

6. Number agreement in allocutives: -zki (v -it)

allocutives

24. Allocutives beyond declarative clauses: di(n)ala (v duela)

alternations

12. Dative marking of the unaccusative causee: etorrarazi dizute (v etorrarazi zaituzte)

animacy

9. Differential object marking: ikusi nizun (v ikusi zintudan)

41. Complex postpositions in animate noun phrases: -gan- (v -rengan-)

49. Animate locatives: baitan (v -gan)

applicatives

14. Past intransitive structures with dative: jatan (v zitzaidan)

29. Bivalent intransitive forms: zakidan, dakit (v zitzaidan, zait)

appositive relatives

60. Partitive in appositive relative phrases with undetermined antecedent: -ik (v -a)

65. Appositive relatives with pronouns: zein...bait- (v -(e)n)

approximation allative

47. Approximation allative: -ra aldera, -raka (v -rantz)

aspect

32. Imperfective aspect in hypothetical conditional clauses’ protasis: -tzen ba- (v -tuko ba-)

34. Time/place modifiers with participial predicates

35. Use of analytical verbs instead of the synthetic form in the past: ekarri nuen, ekartzen nuen (v nekartzan)

36. Imperfective aspectual marking (-ten, -etan, -tuten, -iten, -ketan)

37. Prospective aspectual marking: -(r)en (v -ko)

38. Aspect marking doubling: izandu da, egondu da, itzundu da (v izan da, egon da, itzun da)

39. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood: etorri dadin (v etor dadin)

40. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood with derived verbs: aberetu dadin (v abere dadin)

42. Participial relatives: etorritako, etorririko, etorririkako, etorriniko, etorriko (v etorri)

53. Instrumental/inessive alternation in temporal modifiers: the instrumental (-z) (v the inessive (-n))

66. Auxiliaries *edin/*ezan in hypothetical conditionals’ apodosis (v izan/*edun)

68. Potential by means of modal particle ahal: apurtzen ahal da (v apur daiteke)

auxiliary alternation

17. Absolutive marked subjects in some unergative verbs: borrokatu naiz (v dut )

25. Auxiliaries *edin/ezan in relative clauses: pozgarri zekizkion hitzak (v pozgarri zitzaizkion hitzak)

26. Auxiliary roots in non-indicative (di)transitive forms: -gi- (v -za-)

27. Indicative in imperative clauses: ez haizela joan (v ez hadi joan)

29. Bivalent intransitive forms: zakidan, dakit (v zitzaidan, zait)

30. *Edun ‘have’ instead of izan ‘be’ with bivalent unaccusatives: gustatzen nau, gustatzen dizu (v zait, zaizu)

31. Causatives: eragin (v arazi)

55. Expressing possession: eduki, ukan (v izan/*edun)

56. Ukan ‘have’ instead of izan ‘be’ in resultative participial contexts

57. Progressive ari, along with ergative subject and transitive auxiliary *edun ‘have’: ari dut (v ari naiz)

58. Progressive periphrases: ibili, egon jardun, erauntsi (v ari izan)

bait-relatives

65. Appositive relatives with pronouns: zein...bait- (v -(e)n)

benefactive

46. Destinatives: -tzako, -dako, -tako (v -tzat)

bivalent intransitives

14. Past intransitive structures with dative: jatan (v zitzaidan)

29. Bivalent intransitive forms: zakidan, dakit (v zitzaidan, zait)

bivalent unergatives

10. Dative (first) objects in transitive verbs: itxarongo dizut, diot (v itxarongo zaitut, dut)

case

8. Dative agreement drop: gizonari liburua eman du (v dio)

9. Differential object marking: ikusi nizun (v ikusi zintudan)

10. Dative (first) objects in transitive verbs: itxarongo dizut, diot (v itxarongo zaitut, dut)

11. Dative Displacement: eman nauzu (v eman didazu)

12. Dative marking of the unaccusative causee: etorrarazi dizute (v etorrarazi zaituzte)

16. Neutralization of ergative displacement: emon dostezun (v zeunstan, zenidan)

17. Absolutive marked subjects in some unergative verbs: borrokatu naiz (v dut )

18. Eduki ‘possesive have’ and jakin ‘know’ synthetic forms including dative clitics: dekotzu, dakitzu

19. Ergative/absolutive syncretism in the plural: -ak (v -ek)

20. Dative plural marker: -er, -eri (v -ei)

21. Genitive marking of the transitive object with nominalized verbs: ogiaren erostera (v ogia erostera)

22. Partitive marker to make emphasis in existential clauses: badugu sagar onik (v baditugu sagar onak)

causatives

12. Dative marking of the unaccusative causee: etorrarazi dizute (v etorrarazi zaituzte)

18. Eduki ‘possesive have’ and jakin ‘know’ synthetic forms including dative clitics: dekotzu, dakitzu

31. Causatives: eragin (v arazi)

clitic climbing

complementizer

59. Negation in imperative clauses: ez zaitezela joan (v ez zaitez joan)

62. Non-factive sentential complements: -(e)n (v -(e)la)

63. Factive sentential complements: -(e)na (v -(e)la)

64. Bait- in sentential complements: bait- (v -(e)la)

65. Appositive relatives with pronouns: zein...bait- (v -(e)n)

conditional

32. Imperfective aspect in hypothetical conditional clauses’ protasis: -tzen ba- (v -tuko ba-)

66. Auxiliaries *edin/*ezan in hypothetical conditionals’ apodosis (v izan/*edun)

69. Real conditional forms in the protasis to express unreal past condition: egin (izan) bazuen (v egin (izan) balu)

copulas

54. Stage level copular verbs: izan (v egon)

dative agreement drop

8. Dative agreement drop: gizonari liburua eman du (v dio)

dative agreement/clitics

14. Past intransitive structures with dative: jatan (v zitzaidan)

29. Bivalent intransitive forms: zakidan, dakit (v zitzaidan, zait)

dative displacement

11. Dative Displacement: eman nauzu (v eman didazu)

30. *Edun ‘have’ instead of izan ‘be’ with bivalent unaccusatives: gustatzen nau, gustatzen dizu (v zait, zaizu)

dative flag

14. Past intransitive structures with dative: jatan (v zitzaidan)

29. Bivalent intransitive forms: zakidan, dakit (v zitzaidan, zait)

datives

2. Number agreement: -(t)z- in dative structures (v -zki-)

8. Dative agreement drop: gizonari liburua eman du (v dio)

9. Differential object marking: ikusi nizun (v ikusi zintudan)

10. Dative (first) objects in transitive verbs: itxarongo dizut, diot (v itxarongo zaitut, dut)

11. Dative Displacement: eman nauzu (v eman didazu)

12. Dative marking of the unaccusative causee: etorrarazi dizute (v etorrarazi zaituzte)

14. Past intransitive structures with dative: jatan (v zitzaidan)

18. Eduki ‘possesive have’ and jakin ‘know’ synthetic forms including dative clitics: dekotzu, dakitzu

20. Dative plural marker: -er, -eri (v -ei)

29. Bivalent intransitive forms: zakidan, dakit (v zitzaidan, zait)

derived verbs

40. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood with derived verbs: aberetu dadin (v abere dadin)

differential object marking

9. Differential object marking: ikusi nizun (v ikusi zintudan)

ditransitive forms

5. Number agreement: -it in ditransitive constructions (v -zki)

38. Aspect marking doubling: izandu da, egondu da, itzundu da (v izan da, egon da, itzun da)

doubling

embedding

24. Allocutives beyond declarative clauses: di(n)ala (v duela)

60. Partitive in appositive relative phrases with undetermined antecedent: -ik (v -a)

62. Non-factive sentential complements: -(e)n (v -(e)la)

63. Factive sentential complements: -(e)na (v -(e)la)

64. Bait- in sentential complements: bait- (v -(e)la)

65. Appositive relatives with pronouns: zein...bait- (v -(e)n)

ergative

3. 2^nd person ergative number agreement: -e (v -te)

4. 3^rd person plural ergative number agreement: -e (v -te)

19. Ergative/absolutive syncretism in the plural: -ak (v -ek)

ergative displacement

16. Neutralization of ergative displacement: emon dostezun (v zeunstan, zenidan)

ergativity

16. Neutralization of ergative displacement: emon dostezun (v zeunstan, zenidan)

17. Absolutive marked subjects in some unergative verbs: borrokatu naiz (v dut )

57. Progressive ari, along with ergative subject and transitive auxiliary *edun ‘have’: ari dut (v ari naiz)

58. Progressive periphrases: ibili, egon jardun, erauntsi (v ari izan)

ethical datives

18. Eduki ‘possesive have’ and jakin ‘know’ synthetic forms including dative clitics: dekotzu, dakitzu

factive sentential complements

63. Factive sentential complements: -(e)na (v -(e)la)

familiar and non-familiar

femenine

21. Genitive marking of the transitive object with nominalized verbs: ogiaren erostera (v ogia erostera)

genitive

37. Prospective aspectual marking: -(r)en (v -ko)

41. Complex postpositions in animate noun phrases: -gan- (v -rengan-)

44. Sociative: -kilan (v -kin)

imperative

27. Indicative in imperative clauses: ez haizela joan (v ez hadi joan)

39. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood: etorri dadin (v etor dadin)

40. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood with derived verbs: aberetu dadin (v abere dadin)

59. Negation in imperative clauses: ez zaitezela joan (v ez zaitez joan)

imperfective

32. Imperfective aspect in hypothetical conditional clauses’ protasis: -tzen ba- (v -tuko ba-)

35. Use of analytical verbs instead of the synthetic form in the past: ekarri nuen, ekartzen nuen (v nekartzan)

36. Imperfective aspectual marking (-ten, -etan, -tuten, -iten, -ketan)

68. Potential by means of modal particle ahal: apurtzen ahal da (v apur daiteke)

inessive

36. Imperfective aspectual marking (-ten, -etan, -tuten, -iten, -ketan)

48. Nominalized verb + inessive to express purpose: egiten joan (v egitera joan)

instrumental

45. Sociative/instrumental alternation: -kin, -kilan (v -z)

(in)transitivity

54. Stage level copular verbs: izan (v egon)

55. Expressing possession: eduki, ukan (v izan/*edun)

56. Ukan ‘have’ instead of izan ‘be’ in resultative participial contexts

57. Progressive ari, along with ergative subject and transitive auxiliary *edun ‘have’: ari dut (v ari naiz)

58. Progressive periphrases: ibili, egon jardun, erauntsi (v ari izan)

locatives

47. Approximation allative: -ra aldera, -raka (v -rantz)

48. Nominalized verb + inessive to express purpose: egiten joan (v egitera joan)

49. Animate locatives: baitan (v -gan)

50. Ablative/partitive alternation: -(r)ik (v -tik)

51. Allative marking: -rat/-lat/-alat (v -ra)

53. Instrumental/inessive alternation in temporal modifiers: the instrumental (-z) (v the inessive (-n))

loss of ergative displacement

16. Neutralization of ergative displacement: emon dostezun (v zeunstan, zenidan)

masculine

Me-lui constraint

34. Time/place modifiers with participial predicates

modifiers

53. Instrumental/inessive alternation in temporal modifiers: the instrumental (-z) (v the inessive (-n))

mood

25. Auxiliaries *edin/ezan in relative clauses: pozgarri zekizkion hitzak (v pozgarri zitzaizkion hitzak)

26. Auxiliary roots in non-indicative (di)transitive forms: -gi- (v -za-)

27. Indicative in imperative clauses: ez haizela joan (v ez hadi joan)

66. Auxiliaries *edin/*ezan in hypothetical conditionals’ apodosis (v izan/*edun)

67. Morpheme -ke- expressing uncertain future: dukezu

68. Potential by means of modal particle ahal: apurtzen ahal da (v apur daiteke)

69. Real conditional forms in the protasis to express unreal past condition: egin (izan) bazuen (v egin (izan) balu)

negation

27. Indicative in imperative clauses: ez haizela joan (v ez hadi joan)

59. Negation in imperative clauses: ez zaitezela joan (v ez zaitez joan)

neutralization of ergative displacement

16. Neutralization of ergative displacement: emon dostezun (v zeunstan, zenidan)

nominalization

21. Genitive marking of the transitive object with nominalized verbs: ogiaren erostera (v ogia erostera)

36. Imperfective aspectual marking (-ten, -etan, -tuten, -iten, -ketan)

38. Aspect marking doubling: izandu da, egondu da, itzundu da (v izan da, egon da, itzun da)

48. Nominalized verb + inessive to express purpose: egiten joan (v egitera joan)

non-factive complements

62. Non-factive sentential complements: -(e)n (v -(e)la)

non-factive sentential complements

number agreement

1. Number agreement: -z elsewhere

2. Number agreement: -(t)z- in dative structures (v -zki-)

3. 2^nd person ergative number agreement: -e (v -te)

4. 3^rd person plural ergative number agreement: -e (v -te)

5. Number agreement: -it in ditransitive constructions (v -zki)

6. Number agreement in allocutives: -zki (v -it)

7. Number agreement drop: sagarrak jan du (v ditu)

P incorporation

29. Bivalent intransitive forms: zakidan, dakit (v zitzaidan, zait)

partial neutralization of ergative displacement

16. Neutralization of ergative displacement: emon dostezun (v zeunstan, zenidan)

participial structures

34. Time/place modifiers with participial predicates

42. Participial relatives: etorritako, etorririko, etorririkako, etorriniko, etorriko (v etorri)

56. Ukan ‘have’ instead of izan ‘be’ in resultative participial contexts

participle

38. Aspect marking doubling: izandu da, egondu da, itzundu da (v izan da, egon da, itzun da)

39. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood: etorri dadin (v etor dadin)

40. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood with derived verbs: aberetu dadin (v abere dadin)

42. Participial relatives: etorritako, etorririko, etorririkako, etorriniko, etorriko (v etorri)

68. Potential by means of modal particle ahal: apurtzen ahal da (v apur daiteke)

partitive

22. Partitive marker to make emphasis in existential clauses: badugu sagar onik (v baditugu sagar onak)

42. Participial relatives: etorritako, etorririko, etorririkako, etorriniko, etorriko (v etorri)

50. Ablative/partitive alternation: -(r)ik (v -tik)

60. Partitive in appositive relative phrases with undetermined antecedent: -ik (v -a)

35. Use of analytical verbs instead of the synthetic form in the past: ekarri nuen, ekartzen nuen (v nekartzan)

perfective

Person-Case Constraint

7. Number agreement drop: sagarrak jan du (v ditu)

plural agreement drop

pluralizers

1. Number agreement: -z elsewhere

2. Number agreement: -(t)z- in dative structures (v -zki-)

3. 2^nd person ergative number agreement: -e (v -te)

4. 3^rd person plural ergative number agreement: -e (v -te)

5. Number agreement: -it in ditransitive constructions (v -zki)

6. Number agreement in allocutives: -zki (v -it)

7. Number agreement drop: sagarrak jan du (v ditu)

possessive have

18. Eduki ‘possesive have’ and jakin ‘know’ synthetic forms including dative clitics: dekotzu, dakitzu

55. Expressing possession: eduki, ukan (v izan/*edun)

postposition -KO

32. Imperfective aspect in hypothetical conditional clauses’ protasis: -tzen ba- (v -tuko ba-)

37. Prospective aspectual marking: -(r)en (v -ko)

42. Participial relatives: etorritako, etorririko, etorririkako, etorriniko, etorriko (v etorri)

46. Destinatives: -tzako, -dako, -tako (v -tzat)

67. Morpheme -ke- expressing uncertain future: dukezu

postposition alternation

45. Sociative/instrumental alternation: -kin, -kilan (v -z)

postpositions

8. Dative agreement drop: gizonari liburua eman du (v dio)

41. Complex postpositions in animate noun phrases: -gan- (v -rengan-)

42. Participial relatives: etorritako, etorririko, etorririkako, etorriniko, etorriko (v etorri)

45. Sociative/instrumental alternation: -kin, -kilan (v -z)

44. Sociative: -kilan (v -kin)

46. Destinatives: -tzako, -dako, -tako (v -tzat)

47. Approximation allative: -ra aldera, -raka (v -rantz)

48. Nominalized verb + inessive to express purpose: egiten joan (v egitera joan)

49. Animate locatives: baitan (v -gan)

50. Ablative/partitive alternation: -(r)ik (v -tik)

51. Allative marking: -rat/-lat/-alat (v -ra)

53. Instrumental/inessive alternation in temporal modifiers: the instrumental (-z) (v the inessive (-n))

potential

39. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood: etorri dadin (v etor dadin)

40. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood with derived verbs: aberetu dadin (v abere dadin)

68. Potential by means of modal particle ahal: apurtzen ahal da (v apur daiteke)

progressive aspect

57. Progressive ari, along with ergative subject and transitive auxiliary *edun ‘have’: ari dut (v ari naiz)

58. Progressive periphrases: ibili, egon jardun, erauntsi (v ari izan)

prospective

32. Imperfective aspect in hypothetical conditional clauses’ protasis: -tzen ba- (v -tuko ba-)

37. Prospective aspectual marking: -(r)en (v -ko)

66. Auxiliaries *edin/*ezan in hypothetical conditionals’ apodosis (v izan/*edun)

67. Morpheme -ke- expressing uncertain future: dukezu

relatives

25. Auxiliaries *edin/ezan in relative clauses: pozgarri zekizkion hitzak (v pozgarri zitzaizkion hitzak)

42. Participial relatives: etorritako, etorririko, etorririkako, etorriniko, etorriko (v etorri)

60. Partitive in appositive relative phrases with undetermined antecedent: -ik (v -a)

62. Non-factive sentential complements: -(e)n (v -(e)la)

63. Factive sentential complements: -(e)na (v -(e)la)

64. Bait- in sentential complements: bait- (v -(e)la)

65. Appositive relatives with pronouns: zein...bait- (v -(e)n)

relativizer

42. Participial relatives: etorritako, etorririko, etorririkako, etorriniko, etorriko (v etorri)

60. Partitive in appositive relative phrases with undetermined antecedent: -ik (v -a)

62. Non-factive sentential complements: -(e)n (v -(e)la)

63. Factive sentential complements: -(e)na (v -(e)la)

65. Appositive relatives with pronouns: zein...bait- (v -(e)n)

root alternation

25. Auxiliaries *edin/ezan in relative clauses: pozgarri zekizkion hitzak (v pozgarri zitzaizkion hitzak)

26. Auxiliary roots in non-indicative (di)transitive forms: -gi- (v -za-)

29. Bivalent intransitive forms: zakidan, dakit (v zitzaidan, zait)

30. *Edun ‘have’ instead of izan ‘be’ with bivalent unaccusatives: gustatzen nau, gustatzen dizu (v zait, zaizu)

57. Progressive ari, along with ergative subject and transitive auxiliary *edun ‘have’: ari dut (v ari naiz)

second person

3. 2^nd person ergative number agreement: -e (v -te)

64. Bait- in sentential complements: bait- (v -(e)la)

sentential complements

sociative (comitative)

45. Sociative/instrumental alternation: -kin, -kilan (v -z)

44. Sociative: -kilan (v -kin)

stage/individual level distinction

54. Stage level copular verbs: izan (v egon)

subjunctive

25. Auxiliaries *edin/ezan in relative clauses: pozgarri zekizkion hitzak (v pozgarri zitzaizkion hitzak)

27. Indicative in imperative clauses: ez haizela joan (v ez hadi joan)

39. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood: etorri dadin (v etor dadin)

40. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood with derived verbs: aberetu dadin (v abere dadin)

59. Negation in imperative clauses: ez zaitezela joan (v ez zaitez joan)

66. Auxiliaries *edin/*ezan in hypothetical conditionals’ apodosis (v izan/*edun)

synthetic forms

18. Eduki ‘possesive have’ and jakin ‘know’ synthetic forms including dative clitics: dekotzu, dakitzu

35. Use of analytical verbs instead of the synthetic form in the past: ekarri nuen, ekartzen nuen (v nekartzan)

telicity

53. Instrumental/inessive alternation in temporal modifiers: the instrumental (-z) (v the inessive (-n))

temporal adverbials

53. Instrumental/inessive alternation in temporal modifiers: the instrumental (-z) (v the inessive (-n))

tense markers

15. Past finite verbal forms involving 3^rd person absolutive arguments: Ø (v z)

terminative

4. 3^rd person plural ergative number agreement: -e (v -te)

third person

15. Past finite verbal forms involving 3^rd person absolutive arguments: Ø (v z)

treatment

17. Absolutive marked subjects in some unergative verbs: borrokatu naiz (v dut )

unergative verbs

verb

34. Time/place modifiers with participial predicates

39. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood: etorri dadin (v etor dadin)

40. Perfective participial suffix in non-indicative mood with derived verbs: aberetu dadin (v abere dadin)

42. Participial relatives: etorritako, etorririko, etorririkako, etorriniko, etorriko (v etorri)

59. Negation in imperative clauses: ez zaitezela joan (v ez zaitez joan)

68. Potential by means of modal particle ahal: apurtzen ahal da (v apur daiteke)

69. Real conditional forms in the protasis to express unreal past condition: egin (izan) bazuen (v egin (izan) balu)

vocatives